Crime And Punishment In Ancient Egypt

In the popular imagination Ancient Egypt is seen as an idyllic place where, for 300 years, wise Pharaohs governed a peaceful and plentiful kingdom. Historians, although sceptical of the truth of this image, have always struggled to penetrate it to discover the realities of life for ordinary Egyptians. That is until now.

Africa may have given rise to the first human beings, and Egypt probably gave rise to the first great civilizations, which continue to fascinate modern societies across the globe nearly 5,000 years later. From the Library and Lighthouse of Alexandria to the Great Pyramid at Giza, the ancient Egyptians produced several wonders of the world, revolutionized architecture and construction, created some of the world's first systems of mathematics and medicine, and established language and art that spread across the known world. With famous leaders like King Tut and Cleopatra, it's no wonder that today's world has so many Egyptologists. Perhaps the most intriguing aspect of ancient Egyptian civilization was its inception from the ground up, as the Egyptians themselves had no prior civilization which they could use as a template. In fact, Egypt itself became a template for the civilizations that followed. The Greeks and the Romans were so impressed with Egyptian culture that they often attributed many aspects of their own culture to the Egyptians. With that said, some minor elements of ancient Egyptian culture were, indeed, passed on to later civilizations. Egyptian statuary appears to have had an initial influence on the Greek version, and the ancient Egyptian language continued long after the pharaonic period in the form of the Coptic language. Although the Egyptians may not have passed their civilization directly on to later civilizations, the key elements that comprised Egyptian civilization, including their religion, early ideas of state, and art and architecture, can be seen in other pre-modern civilizations. Indeed, since Egyptian civilization represented some fundamental human concepts, historians often turn to their history when trying to understand other pre-modern cultures. Throughout recorded history, and across the globe, people have acknowledged the need for rules and regulations that have to be enforced if a society is to function. Accordingly, civilizations constructed legal systems that regulated how individuals were expected to operate within that social grouping. For those who broke these rules in order to further their own desires, punishments were imposed as both deterrents and as retribution. In ancient Egypt, the underpinning concept in law, in theory, was that rich and poor citizens should be treated equally, but this was an aspiration that was rarely fulfilled in practice. At the same time, the types of treatment delivered to those deemed guilty could also be harsh - common punishments included confiscation of property, slavery, beatings, and mutilation. During both the Old Kingdom (c. 2700 BCE - 2200 BCE) and Middle Kingdom (c. 2030 BCE - 1650 BCE), crime was dealt with by local officials using their own private police forces. However, during the New Kingdom (c. 1539 BCE - 1075 BCE) a centralized police force emerged, consisting of Nubian tribesmen under an Egyptian supervisor, who were armed with staffs and used specially trained dogs. In extreme cases, the death penalty was invoked, sometimes with the additional punishment of ensuring that the convicted were refused a burial or were buried but without full rituals. Based on the Egyptians' religious beliefs, both situations resulted in the guilty being denied entry to the afterlife. It has been asserted by some academics that Solon, following his visit to Egypt in the 6th century BCE, based many of his reforms of Athenian law on Egyptian practices. Following the Athenian reforms, Solon's measures greatly influenced Roman law, which, in turn, influenced much of the law in modern Europe. As such, the influence of ancient Egyptian law, as with so many other aspects of Egyptian life, spread far and wide.

Crime and punishment, criminal law and its administration, are areas of ancient history that have been explored less than many other aspects of ancient civilizations. Throughout history women have been affected by crime both as victims and as offenders. Yet, in the ancient world customary laws were created by men, formal laws were written by men, and both were interpreted and enforced by men.

The Code of Hammurabi is a well-preserved Babylonian law code of ancient Mesopotamia, dating back to about 1754 BC. It is one of the oldest deciphered writings of significant length in the world. The sixth Babylonian king, Hammurabi, enacted the code, and partial copies exist on a man-sized stone stele and various clay tablets. The Code consists of 282 laws, with scaled punishments, adjusting "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth" (lex talionis) as graded depending on social status, of slave versus free man. Nearly one-half of the Code deals with matters of contract, establishing, for example, the wages to be paid to an ox driver or a surgeon. Other provisions set the terms of a transaction, establishing the liability of a builder for a house that collapses, for example, or property that is damaged while left in the care of another. A third of the code addresses issues concerning household and family relationships such as inheritance, divorce, paternity, and sexual behavior. Only one provision appears to impose obligations on an official; this provision establishes that a judge who reaches an incorrect decision is to be fined and removed from the bench permanently. A few provisions address issues related to military service. Hammurabi ruled for nearly 42 years, c. 1792 to 1750 BC according to the Middle chronology. In the preface to the law, he states, "Anu and Bel called by name me, Hammurabi, the exalted prince, who feared Marduk, the patron god of Babylon (The Human Record, Andrea & Overfield 2005), to bring about the rule in the land." On the stone slab there are 44 columns and 28 paragraphs that contained 282 laws. The laws follow along the rules of 'an eye for an eye'.

Suitable for junior high and high school age, a survey of generalizations and examples of legal systems, though Drapkin (emeritus, criminology, Hebrew Univ. of Jerusalem) often spends more time on historical and social background than on his subject. Covers Mesopotamia, Egypt, Hebrews, Persia, China, Greece, and Rome. "Others" include Islam, Ethiopia, Basques, Japan, and Oceania. Annotation copyrighted by Book News, Inc., Portland, OR

Queen - or, as she would prefer to be remembered King - Hatchepsut was an astonishing woman. Brilliantly defying tradition she became the female embodiment of a male role, dressing in men's clothes and even wearing a false beard. Forgotten until Egptologists deciphered hieroglyphics in the 1820's, she has since been subject to intense speculation about her actions and motivations. Combining archaeological and historical evidence from a wide range of sources, Joyce Tyldesley's dazzling piece of detection strips away the myths and misconceptions and finally restores the female pharaoh to her rightful place.

Ancient Egyptians were ruled by a pharaoh whose word was law and it was the law of Maat whom all Ancient Egyptians lived by, including pharaoh. Maat's laws were quite simple and very much inline with the ten commandments. For instance, do not lie but be truthful in words and deeds, be a moral person, do not steal, but the worst offence is murder and desecration of a pharaohs tomb. The book contains various stories of suspected murder, actual crimes which were committed, the people who were suspected of the offences and in some cases, the punishment or punishments which were meted out to them. These crimes and punishments are evident in texts, court manuscripts and other sources, some of which have been used in this book. As with numerous religions, ancient Egyptians believed in an afterlife. But to enable a person to enter eternity, they must pass the test of the weighing of the heart in the Hall of Judgement also known as the Hall of Truth. Many of the Gods and Goddesses were identified by their headdress, crowns etc, and Maat was identified by the feather on her head, and like her sister Isis, by the wings on each arm. It was this feather, weighed against a persons heart which decided whether or not the deceased had led a good life enabling them to enjoy an afterlife. This book would be helpful to any student of Egyptology.