Networking History

Root shows how the tools of network analysis can be used to understand great transitions in global economic history.

This is a book about the bricks and mortar from which are built those edifices that will permeate the emerging information society of the future-computer networks. For many years such computer networks have played an indirect role in our daily lives as the hidden servants of banks, airlines, and stores. Now they are becoming more visible as they enter our offices and homes and directly become part of our work, entertainment, and daily living. The study of how computer networks function is a combined study of communication theory and computer science, two disciplines appearing to have very little in common. The modern communication scientist wishing to work in this area soon finds that solving the traditional problems of transmission, modulation, noise immunity, and error bounds in getting the signal from one point to another is just the beginning of the challenge. The communication must be in the right form to be routed properly, to be handled without congestion, and to be understood at various points in the network. As for the computer scientist, he finds that his discipline has also changed. The fraction of computers that belong to networks is increasing all the time. And for a typical single computer, the fraction of its execution load, storage occupancy, and system management problems that are in volved with being part of a network is also growing.

The first book written and edited by the people who developed the Internet, this book deals with the history of creating universal protocols and a global data transfer network. The result is THE authoritative source on the topic, providing a vast amount of insider knowledge unavailable elsewhere. Despite the huge number of contributors, the text is uniform in style and level, and of interest to every scientist and a must-have for all network developers as well as agencies dealing with the Net.

How, despite thirty years of effort, Soviet attempts to build a national computer network were undone by socialists who seemed to behave like capitalists. Between 1959 and 1989, Soviet scientists and officials made numerous attempts to network their nation—to construct a nationwide computer network. None of these attempts succeeded, and the enterprise had been abandoned by the time the Soviet Union fell apart. Meanwhile, ARPANET, the American precursor to the Internet, went online in 1969. Why did the Soviet network, with top-level scientists and patriotic incentives, fail while the American network succeeded? In How Not to Network a Nation, Benjamin Peters reverses the usual cold war dualities and argues that the American ARPANET took shape thanks to well-managed state subsidies and collaborative research environments and the Soviet network projects stumbled because of unregulated competition among self-interested institutions, bureaucrats, and others. The capitalists behaved like socialists while the socialists behaved like capitalists. After examining the midcentury rise of cybernetics, the science of self-governing systems, and the emergence in the Soviet Union of economic cybernetics, Peters complicates this uneasy role reversal while chronicling the various Soviet attempts to build a “unified information network.” Drawing on previously unknown archival and historical materials, he focuses on the final, and most ambitious of these projects, the All-State Automated System of Management (OGAS), and its principal promoter, Viktor M. Glushkov. Peters describes the rise and fall of OGAS—its theoretical and practical reach, its vision of a national economy managed by network, the bureaucratic obstacles it encountered, and the institutional stalemate that killed it. Finally, he considers the implications of the Soviet experience for today's networked world.

The telegraph and the telephone were the first electrical communications networks to become hallmarks of modernity. Yet they were not initially expected to achieve universal accessibility. In this pioneering history of their evolution, Richard R. John demonstrates how access to these networks was determined not only by technological imperatives and economic incentives but also by political decision making at the federal, state, and municipal levels. In the decades between the Civil War and the First World War, Western Union and the Bell System emerged as the dominant providers for the telegraph and telephone. Both operated networks that were products not only of technology and economics but also of a distinctive political economy. Western Union arose in an antimonopolistic political economy that glorified equal rights and vilified special privilege. The Bell System flourished in a progressive political economy that idealized public utility and disparaged unnecessary waste. The popularization of the telegraph and the telephone was opposed by business lobbies that were intent on perpetuating specialty services. In fact, it wasnÕt until 1900 that the civic ideal of mass access trumped the elitist ideal of exclusivity in shaping the commercialization of the telephone. The telegraph did not become widely accessible until 1910, sixty-five years after the first fee-for-service telegraph line opened in 1845. Network Nation places the history of telecommunications within the broader context of American politics, business, and discourse. This engrossing and provocative book persuades us of the critical role of political economy in the development of new technologies and their implementation.

Ancient & Medieval Indian History Notes

Modern Indian History Notes, To The Point Notes

The story of the Culper Ring wasn’t always as well-known as it is now, which was due to much of the information about it being classified for a long time. It wasn’t until the 20th century that the public gained insight into the existence and activities of this spy network. Since then, the Culper Ring has been the object of scholarly study and discussion, especially in the US. In time, we’ve learned about the ring’s founders, the context of its emergence, its key operatives, methods, and successes. This is a story that weaves its way through a relatively short but decisive period in American history. Behind the main events and the history that everyone is familiar with, the story of the Culper Ring is like a seldom-told chapter that serves as an important piece of the puzzle, regardless of how it might often be overlooked. That is, however, the story that this book will recount in a concise manner so that you can remind yourself of the revolutionary heroes that went unsung for a long time.