Social Expectations

A young man without meaning in life decides to take his life. Before he commits the act, an opportunity surfaces that delays his fate. Struggling with the disillusionment of reality, Harlan expects to discover something through a charismatic communist sympathizer convinced, by Harlan, to run for public office. As the years go by, they form a formidable alliance and allow nothing, including ethics, to stand in their way to acquire power. The power hierarchy is profound, with many interlacing strata the two men need to ascend, all to ameliorate the oppressed with a cooperative association of Peoplekin. Their Machiavellian tactics provide a semblance of hope to the American people who are more than willing to give up their freedoms for a simple life. A traumatic event emancipates one of the men from their austere disposition, which compels forgiveness and the restoration of individual sovereignty.

Moral expectation is a concept with which all of us are well acquainted. Already as children we learn that certain courses of action are expected of us. We are expected to perform certain actions, and we are expected to refrain from other actions. Furthermore, we learn that something is morally wrong with the failure to do what we are morally expected to do. A central theme of this book is that moral expectation should not be confused with moral obligation. While we are morally expected to do everything we are obligated to do, a person can be morally expected to do some things that he or she is not morally obligated to do. Although moral expectation is a familiar notion, it has not been the object of investigation in its own right. In the early chapters Mellema attempts to provide a philosophical account of this familiar notion, distinguish it from other types of expectations, and show how it is possible to form false moral expectations. Subsequent chapters explore the role of moral expectation in agreements between people, analyze ways that people avoid moral expectation, illustrate how groups can have moral expectations, and view moral expectation in the context of our relationship with divine beings. The final chapter provides insight into how moral expectation operates in people's professional lives.

Increasingly, companies are being judged by their performance in terms of Environmental Social Governance (ESG). But exactly what does it mean, and what should be done about it? While much ambiguity exists, it is no longer sufficient to negotiate the environmental assessment process successfully. ESG is an ongoing process that spans the entire life cycle of a company and its operations. This book is aimed at business leaders – senior executives and company directors – and particularly those involved in the extractive industries and other ventures that significantly affect the environment and host communities. Guidance is provided on the major ESG issues that confront all business leaders. Strategies are provided to address ESG risk and to handle crises when they occur. QUESTIONS FOR BUSINESS LEADERS: Are you at all prepared for an environmental or social crisis event? How will you cope with the "unknown unknowns"? What do your shareholders expect you to do about climate change? Are your employees proud of the company’s ESG performance? How does your bank evaluate your biodiversity impacts?

Sanford C. Goldberg argues in this volume that epistemic normativity - the sort of normativity implicated in assessments of whether a belief amounts to knowledge - is grounded in the things we properly expect of one another as epistemic subjects. In developing this claim Goldberg argues that epistemic norms and standards themselves are generated by the expectations that arise out of our profound and ineliminable dependence on one another for what we know of the world. The expectations in question are those through which we hold each other accountable to standards of both (epistemic) reliability and (epistemic) responsibility. In arguing for this Goldberg aims to honor the insights of both internalist and externalist approaches to epistemic justification. The resulting theory has far-reaching implications not only for the theory of epistemic normativity, but also for the nature of epistemic assessment itself, as well as for our understanding of epistemic defeat, epistemic justification, epistemic responsibility, and the various social dimensions of knowledge.

Leadership Expectations is an in-depth study of expectations and how one leader creates and uses them to shape a university, its culture, and its success. This research operates on the underlying assumption that the organization is an expression of the leader and the people he or she attracts. As the personal, interpersonal, and organizational agendas a leader carries in their mind and enacts in their behavior are understood, the organization can be understood. Concurrently, at least one major means of organizational transformation emerges, executive development. The result: their personal development (and/or lack of it) drives organizational performance. The cost: their self-sacrifices energize the values they most deeply hold for themselves, others, and the university they lead. The reward: truth revealed, about themselves, others, and their organization; lives touched and transformed, including their own; and organizational capacity for good increased.

From Pavlov's dog expecting food when hearing a bell to stereotypes as expectations about other people’s behaviour, from Bandura’s self-efficacy as expectation for success and failure of one’s own behaviour to the "predictive brain" concept in current perception theories: expectations have been a central construct in different areas of psychological research. In each of these areas, specific concepts, theoretical approaches, and empirical methods have been developed to explain when and why expectations persist and when they do not. Many theories assume that expectations are likely to change in the face of disconfirming evidence. However, sometimes expectations persist even though they are empirically violated, suggesting that they can be “sticky” under certain circumstances. But what are these circumstances? And what are the psychological mechanisms that can explain why and when expectations persist or change after being confronted with expectation-violating evidence? Each contribution of the current book offers insights into individuals’ reactions to violations of expectations. They show that many pieces of the puzzle have been collected in the many sub-displiclines of psychology and that putting them together in an integrative fashion stays a fascinating enterprise.

Introduction; Part I. Educational Technology Beyond Learning; Educational Technology – Expectations and Experiences: An Introductory Overview; ICT and Education Beyond Learning: A Framework for Analysis, Development and Critique; Part II. Educational Technology in Schools; Educational Technology in Schools: Policymaking and Policy Enactment; What Explains Pupils’ Perceived Motivational Conflict between Academic Work and Off-Task Behaviour in Technology-Rich Classrooms?; Why Is There a Wedge between the Promise of Educational Technology and the Experiences in a Technology-Rich Pioneer School?; On the Life of ICT and School Leadership in a Large-Scale Reform Movement: A Case Study; A Small Step Strategy to Boost Integration of Digital Technology in Learning and Teaching at an Upper-Secondary School; Part III. Social Networking Sites, Social Media, and Internet: Challenging Issues for Schools; Social Networking Sites, Social Media, and Internet: Challenging Issues for Schools; The Social Media Natives: The Relationship between Young Peoples’ Media User Type and Their Media Use at School; Cyber Harassment and Quality of Life; The Impact of Cyberbullying and Cyber Harassment on Academic Achievement; Ninth Graders’ Use of and Trust in Wikipedia, Textbooks, and Digital Resources from Textbook Publishers; Examining Gender Differences in ICT Literacy, Interest, and Use: Norwegian Results from the ICILS 2013; Part IV. Coda; Backwards and Forwards: Reflections on Teaching in a Digital Age.

This book provides a unique historical perspective on expectations in economic theory, and applications of expectations models in economic history. Based on papers presented at the 2017 Thomas Guggenheim Conference, it brings together the work of economists, historians of economics, and economic historians on issues and events concerning expectations in economics and economic history. The contributions address: (i) the history of expectations models; (ii) growth, expectations and political economy; (iii) controversies regarding expectations methods and models; (iv) expectations in theory and reality; and (v) expectations in economic history. The book opens with a lecture by Thomas Guggenheim Prize winner Duncan Foley on the evolution of expectations in modern economic thought. The remaining content is divided into two parts, the first of which focuses on the utilization of expectations in the “ancient” and “meso” periods of high theory, i.e., from Smithian to Keynesian approaches. The papers cover topics such as “modern” applications of expectations in both “Tobinesque-Phillips” and “Harrodian-Solowian” contexts, and the debate between Friedmanite and Keynesian approaches to expectation formation. In turn, the last part presents essays on the role of economic expectations in connection with historical events and contexts, ranging from the early 20th century to World War II, and on the application of expectations theory to hyperinflation and stabilization, taking Israel as a case study.